Compare the implications of negative and positive freedom for the Essay

Compare the implications of negative and positive freedom for the relationship between the individual and the state - Essay Example It is also widely claimed to pertain to exemption from the arbitrary exercise of authority in the performance of a specific action and the capacity to exercise choice. Out of this freedom comes a consideration whether to be free from authority or external governing forces or from the inner command which is rather controlled by oneself. In a situation where an individual is able to act freely under circumstances when elements of state, unless for the purpose of granting security, may not interfere with freedom, in terms for instance of speech, religious choice, self-expression, and of general learning which are all taken into account by the so-called negative liberty. Restrictions in this sense of negative freedom would thus necessarily be derived from the outside since a person for this case is assumed capable of executing an action by instinct or nature beyond any internal inhibitions. On the contrary, positive liberty is a consequence of freedom from boundaries set by convention in a society which establishes a standard norm that must be adhered to collectively or by the number of people making up a society of particular social structure. This mode of liberty is characteristic of an introspective condition and would not afford even a slightest resistance to implementation of freewill. Though one may feel free to participate in assimilation yet finds discomfort in the idea of conformity to a dominant group which supports advocacy for certain ideology, cultural belief, or a complex sociological framework which embeds inevitable division by race, sex, or class, freedom would not have a complete sense of positive identity for such an involved person. Commitment to liberty in this picture ought to be relieved of coercion and should, by all means, originate based upon sole discretion of freewill instead. Freedom in its positive trait further

Suppose you were selected for special position Essay

Suppose you were selected for special position - Essay Example This take however may be challenged, especially when a not sought for assignment is offered, and there are no chances of refusal. If I get myself in such a fix, then it would be required that I apply my course and every single thing I have learnt in the process in dealing with the issue at hand. For me, my course and especially physics would play a central role. Ethics Moral responsibility plays a central role in any given assignment. Regardless of the specific field of training, this is a fundamental component of one self, not only in the field of employment, but also in any given context of human interactions. The various education fields have different ethics applicable to them (Perl 213). This encompasses physics among all other identifiable fields of study. In this regard, taking into account the codes of ethics applicable to me, given the course I have taken, I am morally responsible to take on assignments offered to me. This does not only imply personal benefit, but also the w elfare of the entire society; the entire company included. Training The education system in place takes care of individual interests, not only in academic terms, but also in every identifiable aspect of life. Training that makes me handle not sought for assignments encompass class work, related practical work as well as outside-class exposure. This is an input factor that has been realized along the line of study, such that it becomes integral to whatever goals and objectives pursued during and after successful completion of studies. Personal diversity and dynamism Personal growth and development is neither rigid nor fixed to specific grounds of capability. Physics is a unique subject that captures changes in a very specific way (Perl 288). Most of the worldwide development, innovativeness and inventions borrow heavily from physics and related subjects. The diversity and dynamism characteristic of this subject and the course in general should be manifested through the learners. Succ essful completion of this course implied that all requirements prior to this course have been met. In this regard, applying the concepts, theories and models presented in the course should not amount to any difficulty. The important thing to note is that the specific theories and concepts presented in the course are not likely to be the same as those that will be encountered in the actual line of work. Experiencing a different scenario from that I am already used to is a challenge. However, I take challenge as a factor of determination, where personal diversity and dynamism is based upon. This means that even if I land on a not sought for assignment, there are no regrets nor are there doubts that I can actually handle it. Being open and broad minded is the crucial factor that determines personal diversity and change over time. Fixing my career to the specifics of the course does not imply learning for me. This course has taught me that knowledge is a procedural attainment through wh ich a known phenomenon leads to an unknown, and that unknown, another phenomenon of knowing is created. In this regard, the new technology meant to produce electricity may not be known to any employees of the company, but it is known to some other party not present in the company. This brings in the fundamental point to consider. That is, there exists information about this technology and how it works to achieve the desired purpose. As a Lead

How Television Has Impacted Technology Essay Example for Free

How Television Has Impacted Technology Essay Television was introduced in 1949 but very few people had it because it was extremely expensive. The only channels people could watch were NBC and CBS. Television became increasingly popular because it was entertainment without going and sitting in the movie theaters. As TV became more popular, it became more affordable. People would hear about television through word of mouth, news, radio and newspaper. Everybody liked the idea of being entertained and staying at home. By the 1960s most families has TV sets in their living rooms, depending on if they liked being entertained at home. Television in the United States has grown year after year and has made a big impact on American culture in many ways. TV has taken a big part in violence in society, the news, how people are stereotyped, childhood obesity, family values, social interaction, and so much more. In my opinion one of the biggest impacts that television has had on American culture is childhood obesity. Obesity is considered a form of malnutrition in which food energy is stored as fat due to being unused. Child obesity is bred within the home and the television is a major contributor to it. The energy we consume from food needs to be used up by the body on a daily basis through physical exertion. An overweight child devoting a major portion of time to watching television is at risk to becoming obese. Television is certainly a contributor to that obesity. Kids these days are getting bigger and bigger, while television shows are growing and growing. To me, that is a big issue and television affects it a lot. Back in the day children enjoyed going outside to play, getting involved in sports or just anything outdoors. I feel like as of today there are now only about a quarter of the kids that enjoy doing outdoors stuff like that. The other 75% of kids choose to stay inside because most likely there favorite TV show is on or there is a movie that they just have to watch. Those kids are losing their time to play outside and mainly burn and lose calories because they are just sitting there watching TV for hours and hours. Obesity is known to be one of the major health concerns among both children and adults in the United States today. It is suggested by certain groups that children should not watch more than two hours of television a day. This in my opinion is already too much because that is where childhood obesity all gets started. The average child n the United States regularly watches between 2-3 hours of television a day and many children now days have their own television set in their bedroom. Not only are children inactive while they are watching television, they often snack on unhealthy food choices. And like I said, establishing unhealthy food habits as a child can often continue into adulthood. Investi gators have hypothesized that television viewing cause’s obesity by one or more of three mechanisms: (1) displacement of physical activity, (2) increased calorie consumption while watching or caused by the effects of advertising, and (3) reduced resting metabolism. The relationship between television viewing and obesity has been examined in a relatively large number of cross-sectional epidemiologic studies but few longitudinal studies. Many of these studies have found relatively weak, positive associations, but others have found no associations or mixed results; however, the weak and variable associations found in these studies may be the result of limitations in measurement. Even studies for reducing the amount of television intake have been completed. They do not test â€Å"reducing television time† directly, but the results that they get may help to reduce the amount of risk for obesity or help promote weight loss in obese children. â€Å"An experimental study was designed specifically to test directly the causal relationship between television viewing behaviors and body fatness. The results of this randomized, controlled trial provide evidence that television viewing is a cause of increased body fatness and that reducing television viewing is a promising strategy for preventing childhood obesity. † I really think parents need to take a stand to their children by limiting the amount of time they spend in front of the television, before it gets too late and they have an obese child. Removing televisions from children’s bedrooms and putting time limits on the TV may be a good way for parents to reduce the risk of obesity in children. Parents must serve as role models because their television viewing habits influence their children’s. Parents should also limit the frequency of television viewing. Overweight and obese children need to be encouraged to do more physical activity such as walking, playing and limiting their television time. Children may also need structured physical activity times to divert them away from television. â€Å"Although the increase in childhood obesity is not caused solely by television watching, Dr. Reginald Washington points out in the editorial that accompanies the articles, Society, as a whole, must realize that to effectively control and prevent this obesity epidemic, all risk factors must simultaneously be reduced. A study by the University of Liverpool psychologists has shown that it is to be true that obese and overweight children increase their food intake by more than 100% after watching food advertisements on television. Children all over the world are exposed to a huge number of TV advertisements, primarily for fast foods and sweets. Some say that it is not the amount of TV; it is the number of junk food commercials that advertise unhealthy foods and constantly play over and over. It is miserable that people blame television as a result to childhood obesity but the United States is starting to get very lazy when it comes to situations like this, therefore I truly believe TV is one of the dominate reasons of why children are becoming obese. I feel like this impact has been mainly negative on American culture. Television advertisers get talked down to by research groups, wanting them to take away all the unhealthy food commercials. Childhood obesity coming from television watchers makes American culture look very bad. When you find out that all it takes is television sets in a kids bedroom and high-quality shows that make children sit, stare and snack to become obese. It really puts a depressing look on America. In my opinion it is a very negative result because it used to not be this way at all. The parents and children put themselves in the situation to becoming obese and television just is an excuse for whenever they actually are obese. I know I will never let my children or close friends get this way due to excess amount of television watching. I have time to watch all my shows I like during the day and still get a good exercise in. I believe that all people can watch their weight and not become obese if they really try. So I really hope the culture changes and fix its look on television with obesity. I do believe that the internet will be used more wisely than television as a medium for delivering content. Television is an older and dull way of showing and sharing shows, movies and advertisements, while now days the nternet can do the same plus a whole lot more. Internet is a lot easier to get to because so many people have smart phones or laptops to be able to quickly access it. I feel like even now I start to see more and more people of all ages on their laptop/computer/smart phone rather than sitting down and watching television shows. Internet is a new (compared to TV) and entertaining way to access World Wide Web. News and broadcast stations are all starting to put their information and ideas on the internet even before they send them to television. While putting the internet into question about my topic, as much as I hate seeing younger kids run around with their own smart phone and/or laptop, it would really help society. Internet will help a lot more in this situation because children that do have smart phones will be able to play outside and exercise with their phone in hand. If the kids do go outside while on their phone it will stop them from sitting in front of a television set, sitting, staring and snacking. Therefore, it will lower the childhood obesity rate in the United States. Childhood obesity is a very heartbreaking yet occurring thing that television influenced and started in the U. S. It has been a very big impact on television and American Culture. After all, we are all hoping and praying that parents help their children get back to how it was back in the day. Have the children exercising, playing outside, and getting involved in sports that way they only spend approximately one hour watching television. We have to lower the childhood obesity rate and will continue to try and stop every way that is involved in it.

Encephalitis Is An Infection Of The Brain Biology Essay

Encephalitis Is An Infection Of The Brain Biology Essay Encephalitis is an infection of the brain that cause of irritation and inflammation to the brain Medical Encylopedia, 2012. Primary encephalitis is happened when the infection of the brain or spinal cord. Secondary encephalitis is happened when the infection is started to spread to the whole body and to the brain (Nordqvist, 2009). Encephalitis is a swelling of the brain parenchyma (nervous tissue in brain) that responsible for function of electrochemical communication and the ability of body to send message to different parts (david) http://www.doereport.com/imagescooked/4049W.jpg Goodman (2003) argued that encephalitis is an acute inflammatory disease of the parenchyma of the brain. It is caused by direct viral invasion or hypersensitivity initiated by a virus. Encephalitis is characterized by inflammation primarily in the gray matter of the central nervous system (CNS). Neuronal death can result in edema. There can be damage to the vascular system and inflammation of the arachnoid and pia matter. 1.1.1 Encephalitis http://findlaw.doereport.com/imagescooked/4047W.jpg Debbie Bridges (2012) argue that encephalitis is a swelling of the brain tissue, it will become serious when it can cause change personality, debility and another symptoms with the different part of brain affected. It usually happened to children and elder with low immune system. It is very rare, in U.S, about one in 200,000 people in year. Nordqvist (2009) agreed that encephalitis is acute inflammation of the brain because immune system of the body is too low to attacks viral infection. Fever and headache usually the first symptoms and it become more dangerous like unconsciousness, confusion and coma. The patient will be faced a problem such as behaviour changes, loss of memory, language and speech problem (aphasia) and epilepsy. Arthropod à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ borne (mosquito à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ borne) viruses and herpes simplex (herpes simplex type 1) are the most common that causes encephalitis. Encephalitis is an acute febrile disease usually of viral origin and involves with nervous system (). 1.1.2 Viral Meningoencephalitis According to kumar 2004, viral encephalitis is infection of the brain at parenchymal almost constantly associated with meningoencephalitis (meningeal inflammation) and sometimes with encephalomyelitis (involves spinal cord). 1.2 Anatomy of brain http://healthy-lifestyle.most-effective-solution.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/human-anatomy-brain.jpg Figure Anatomy of the brain http://antranik.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/dura-mater-superior-sagittal-sinus-subdural-space-subarachnoid-space-falx-cerebri-periosteal-meningeal-arachnoid-villus.jpg Figure Layer of meninges The brain is protected by the scalp, the skull and the meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and blood-brain barrier. The structures of brain consists cerebellum, cerebrum, brainstem and pituitary gland. Layer of meninges include the dura mater (strongest layer), arachnoid mater) and pia mater (nearest to the brain). (Stephen n all 2010). Antranik (2011) states that meninges are surround the brain and protect the brain itself. The function meninges is cover and protect the blood vessel that supply at brain and contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) between the pia mater and arachnoid mater. Dura mater consists periosteal and meningeal at immediately deep to the poriosteum. Tortora (2009) notes that the function of the blood- brain barrier (BBB) is to protect the brain from harmful substances and pathogens by prevent it enter brain through blood. The function of CSF is protecting the brain and spinal cord from chemical and physical injury. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. Each area of cerebrum is the most important function for example controls movement and languages. The function of cerebellum is control coordination and movement. Function of brainstem is control involuntary functions such as blood pressure, temperature and breathing movement. The structure that controls of the endocrine gland is pituitary gland (Stephen 2010) 1.3 Type of Encephalitis Western equine encephalitis is arboviral infection that spread by mosquitoes which more occur in summer and most common in young children. St. Louis encephalitis is more usually at United States and affected older person. It is more seriously than younger person. West Nile fever is a form of encephalitis that caused by falvivirus, spread by mosquitoes with certain birds as an intermediate host. Encephalitis has spread from northeastern United States. Neuroborreliosis (lyme disease) is due by a spirochete, transmitted by tick bites in summer season. The part of the tick bite is red with a pale center and gradually increasing size. Herpes simplex encephalitis is arising from spread of herpes simplex virus type 1 from the trigeminal nerve ganglion. It is occurs occasionally and dangerous. This encephalitis can cause extensive necrosis and haemorrhage in the brain and usually involves the frontal and temporal lobes figures .. http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/images5/5-hsvl.jpg Figure heamorrhagic necrosis of the temporal and frontal lobe in adult Herpes Simplex Virus encephalitis. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Causes encephalitis Figure 2 a herpes simplex virus the most common cause encephalitis. Viral infection is the cause that affects the encephalitis. Encephalitis may be cause with different type of viruses. Herpes simplex virus is the main cause of severe cases in all ages including newborns. The person will get this virus from an infected person through breathing in respiratory droplets and skin contact. It can also through by insect bites like a mosquito and contaminated food or drink. Arbovirus encephalitis is a viral encephalitis that carried by insect (mosquito and ticks). It is rare condition where severe case more likely is happened to young children and elderly. Picture of Culex mosquito laying eggs Figure Culex mosquito laying eggs Picture of arbovirus transmission cycle It also may cause by a vaccine such as rubella, mumps and measles (Kathryn Sue 1994). Adenovirus, coxsackievirus. Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus and Echovirus are also associated with encephalitis. A number of viruses for which there is now a vaccine may also cause encephalitis. These include meales, mumps, polio, rabies, rubella, varicella (chickenpox). Other causes of encephalitis may be occurring by an allergic reaction to vaccinations, autoimmune disease, bacteria (lyme disease and tuberculosis) and the effects of cancer. According to (Christian Nordiqst ) the causes of encephalitis can be category by two which are primary (infectious) encephalitis and secondary (post infectious) encephalitis. For primary encephalitis, there are three main categories of viruses which are common viruses (herpes simplex virus) , childhood viruses (measles ,mumps), and arboviruses. Secondary encephalitis can be caused by a complication of viral infection. 2.2 Incidence 2.2.1 Incidence Encephalitis in Malaysia In September 1998, an epidemic of severe fever encephalitis among pig farmers was first reported in the state of Perak Malaysia that was associated with high rate mortality. At first death were thought by Japanese encephalitis (JE) that is endemic in Malaysia and occur occasionally. However, characteristic of JE is different to these cases. A few cases patients were young children and most of the cases happened to men that have worked with pigs. Whereas, JE is mosquito borne that most common among young children and has no associated with particular occupation. JE was eliminated from possibility JE was the cause due to illness and deaths among infected pigs. By February 1999, similar disease were happened in pigs and humans in other area in Malaysia. 2.2.2 Incidence Encephalitis in Overseas Different viruses will occur in different locations. Many cases will tend to cluster in a certain season. According to Kathryn Sue (1994) the arthropod à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬borne occurs in epidemics with different incidence like as geographic and seasonal incidence (table). Eastern equine encephalitis is the least common of encephalitis but is the most serious encephalitis. table Viral encephalitis Type Geographic incidence Seasonal incidence Arthropod- borne : Eastern equine encephalitis Eastern United States Autumn Western equine encephalitis Uniform distribution, throughout the United States Summer and early fall St. Louis encephalitis Widespread distribution , in the far west occur in rural area, elsewhere in urban areas Late summer Venezuelan equine encephalitis Sourthwestern united States Year round California virus encephalitis Midwestern states Early fall Herpes simplex encephalitis No particular geographic distribution No seasonal incidence Poliovirus poliomyelitis Sporadic distribution where nonimmunized persons cluster Summer and ealy fall Rabies Sporadic distribution throughout the United States Bites more common in the late spring and throughout the early fall DISEASE GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION VECTOR/ HOSTS Herpes encephalitis United states / the world Human to human contact West Nile encephalitis Africa, West Asia, Middle East, United States Mosquito / mostly birds Eastern equine encephalitis East Coast (from Massachussetts to Florida), Gulf Coast Mosquito / birds Western equine encephalitis Western United States and Canada Mosquito / birds Venezuelan equine encephalitis Western Hemisphere Mosquito / rodents La Crosse encephalitis United States (Midwestern Southeastern) Mosquito / chipmunks, squirrels St. Louis encephalitis Milwestern mid- Atlantic United States Mosquito/ birds Japanese encephalitis Temperate Asia, southern and southeastern Asia Mosquito/ birds and pigs Picture of worldwide distribution of major arboviral encephalitides Figure worldwide distribution and arbovirus transmission cycle. 2.3 Mortality/morbidity Encephalitis may be a mild infectious disease to a severe disorder that is life-threatening. The dramatic clinical manifestations of encephalitis are fever delirium or confusion progressing to unconsciousness, seizure activity cranial nerve palsies, paresis and paralysis, involuntary movement and abnormal reflexes. Signs of marked intracranial pressure may be present, 2.3.1 Mortality Charles Patrick 2012 argued that the certain of patients with encephalitis the death rate can be high. The death rates of St. Louis encephalitis can up to 30% of the cases. For Japanese encephalitis, the range death rate is from 0.3% to 60% of the people infected usually within the first week of illness and herpes encephalitis, 50%-755 of people die within 18 months. In contrast, it can increase survival up 90% when treatment by acyclovir (Zovirax). 2.3.2 Morbidity According to james nina 2004. Survival rates are due to the etiology of the disease. In some cases it can be fatal. In USA, according to Centers for Disease Controls and Prevention), encephalitis most occur in children, elderly people and individuals have weakened immune systems approximately in 0.5 in every 100,000 individuals. Besides that, in UK the National Health Service (NHS) places a figure at 1.5 cases per 100,000 people. ( Christian Nordqist 2009) 2.4 Signs and Symptoms 2.4.1 Symptoms of Encephalitis Before encephalitis begins, some patients will feel cold or stomach infection. For the case of encephalitis is not very severe, the symptoms may be similar with other disease such as fever (not very high), mild headache, low energy and poor appetite. For other symptom is confusion, drowsiness, light sensitivity, vomiting, irritability or poor temper control. (encephalitis , 2012) According to Christian norqist 2009, symptom for less common severe in encephalitis is the patients will experience stiff neck and back (occasionally). There also can be stiffness of the limbs, slow movement and clumsiness. The patient will also have cough and feels drowsy. For the more severe cases, the patients experience severe headaches, nausea, vomiting, confusion, memory loss, hearing problems, hallucination, seizures and possibly coma. The patient will be become aggressive for some cases. (christain norqist 2009). Symptoms of encephalitis in infants and newborns may be difficult to recognize. The parent or guardian should be alert of baby crying more than often (there will become worse when the baby is picked up and comforted). Besides that, the parent should be look out of vomiting, soft spot on the top of the head (frontal) may bulge out more. Other symptoms are includes body stiffness and poor feeding. (christain norqist 2009). For emergency symptoms in encephalitis is the patients will loss of consciousness, poor responsiveness, coma, muscle weakness, seizures, severe headache, and sudden change in mental functions which are amnesia, lack of mood, impaired of judgement inability to make decision and less interest in daily activities. (encephalitis 2012) 2.4.2 Signs of Encephalitis Signs of encephalitis may be show muscle weakness, speech problem, skin rash, mouth ulcers, mental confusion and neck stiffness. Other than that, signs of encephalitis are abnormal reflexes and increased intracranial pressure. Table Summary of symptoms Symptoms of encephalitis Less severe More severe In newborn and young infants Mild headache Fever Poor appetite Light sensitivity Vomiting Disorientation Stiff neck and back Severe headache Nausea Vomiting Confusion Memory loss Speech problem Hallucination Seizures coma body stiffness poor feeding Bulging soft spots on the top head table Summary signs of encephalitis Signs of encephalitis Muscle weakness Mouth ulcers Neck stiffness Skin rash Speech problem Abnormal reflexes Increased intracranial pressure Mental confusion 2.5 Pathophysiology The virus causes inflammation of brain tissue. The brain tissue swells (cerebral edema), which may destroy nerve cells, cause bleeding in the brain (intracerebral haemorrhage), and brain damage. When the virus spread by haematogenous (via bloodstream) like example rabies virus, it replicates outside the CNS and enter in the CNS. Since the virus through the blood- brain barrier t virus enter neural cells. These will result disruption of cell functioning, perivascular congestion, haemorrhage and a diffuse inflammatory response that disproportionately affects gray matters over white matter. Certain virus depend to neuron cell membrane preceptors that only found in specific parts of the brain like example Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) more likely causes haemorrhage necrotic encephalitis with predilection for the limbic system, inferior and medial temporal lobes. (David) According to james nina 2004, individuals who obtain encephalitis more frequently develop permanent neurologic disabilities. This condition is more serious than meningitis. This is happened when the viral infection produce in cerebral edema with numerous hemorrhagic spots scattered throughout the cerebral hemispheres, brainstem and cerebellum. 2.6 Histopathology 2.6.1 Arthropod- Borne Viral Encephalitis CHAPTER THREE IMAGING MODALITIES 3.1 Computer Tomography (CT scan) Computer Tomography is the combination of computer technology and x-rays as a result two dimensional images of organ, bones and tissues. To detect sign of encephalitis or inflammation of the meninges, usually procedure with contrast is required. The contrast is injected into bloodstream to more differentiate tissues in the brain. (national institude of neurological disorder and stroke 2011) Mahesh (2011) states that in adult, encephalitis in CT scans visualize hypodensity in the temporal lobe either bilaterally or unilaterally. It also involves with or without frontal lobe. 3.2 Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI) MRI is use strong magnet and computer- generates radio waves to produce more detail images of body structures which are tissues, bones, organs and nerves. MRI is better than CT scan which is give more clearly picture that can help to recognize brain and spinal cord inflammation. Infection, tumors, eye disease and blood vessel irregularities that can be stroke. The images that require more detail, a contrast may be injected. (national institude of neurological disorder and stroke 2011) 3.3 Electroencephalography (EEG) EEG is use by monitoring electrical activity in the brain through the skull to detect abnormal brain waves. The function of EEG is to help diagnose certain seizure disorder, specific viral infection, for example herpes virus and inflammation of the brain or spinal cord. (national institude of neurological disorder and stroke 2011) 3.4 Ultrasonography Mahesh (2011) states that the role of ultrasonography in detects herpes encephalitis are limited. This is because it limited to identify the periventicular destructive process in neonatal evaluation ultrasonogaphy. Ultrasound showing a good near field but less far field resolution (Cranial Ultrsonography in Neonates 2010) . According to (james nina , 2004) MRI is precious diagnosis because it can detect brain inflammation earlier than Computed tomography (CT), ultrasound, nuclear medicine studies, or EEG evaluation. Other anomalies such as a brain abscess or subdural emphysema or hematoma that mimics the clinical sign of viral encephalitis can be rule out by MR. 3.5 Nuclear Imaging CHAPTER FOUR IMAGES OF FEATURES OF PATHOLOGY 4.1 Computed Tomography (CT Scan) http://www.mypacs.net/repos/mpv3_repo/viz/full/0/38/120/39969726.jpghttp://www.mypacs.net/repos/mpv3_repo/viz/full/0/38/120/39969721.jpg Figure shows 30 years old men that have AIDS, presenting with left facial palsy. Figure (a) shows CT scan non contrast as a result a isodence lesion in the right basal ganglia, surrounded by hypodense edema and mass effect. Figure (b) shows CT with contrast that represent a ring- enchancing lesion in the right basal ganglia that surrounded by edema. ( Antonio, 2011) a b http://www.pediatriconcall.com/fordoctor/diseasesandcondition/pediatric_emergencies/IMAGE/v7c09a%5B1%5D.jpg Figure (a) show some hypodensity in the thalami and temporal lobes without contrast, indicative of bilateral cortical and subcortical edema. Figure (b) shows there is meningeal enhancement at the margins of abnormal parenchymas as well as mild central enhancement after IV contrast is injected. There is no evidence of herniation. a bImage of encephalitis Figure 4.1 (a) is a CT scan of a normal brain. Figure 4.1 (b) shows contrast materials have accumulate in infected areas and around the brain from encephalitis. (Paul 2011) 4.2 MRI Imaging http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Hsv_encephalitis.jpg/230px-Hsv_encephalitis.jpg Figure 4.2 high signals in the temporal lobes including hippocampal formations and parahippogampal grae, insulae and right inferior gyrus by using coronal T2- weighted MR. http://images.radiopaedia.org/images/539441/ea09c9c0186c85af7c888a031e559c_gallery.jpg Figure shows that MRI demonstrates extensive oedema in the right temporal lobes with areas of intrinsic high T1 signal, in keeping with haemorrhage. Axial proton densityà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬weighted image in a 62-year-o Figure shows 62 years old woman with confusion and herpes encephalitis with axial proton density- weight image. It demonstrates T2 hyperintensity involving the right temporal lobe. 4.3 Ultrosonography Full-size image (20 K) Figure demonstrate coronol ultrasound scan at the level of the frontal horns of the lateral ventricles. It performed with phased array transducer. It is shows mildly dilated frontal horns and bilateral grade 1 intraventricular hemorrhage (arrows). CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION 5.1 Difference Encephalitis and Meningitis Encephalitis is the dangerous than meningitis because the person that has encephalitis is more develop to permanent neurologic disabilities. According to james nina 2004, meningitis is an inflammation of the meningeal that covering the brain and spinal cord. Bacteria, viruses or other organisms that reach the meninges are the causes of meningitis. This can be happened in elsewhere in the body by blood or lymph as a result from trauma and penetrating wounds, or from adjacent structures that become infected. Most common that cause meningitis is bacterial infection. Kathryn sue 1994 states that meningitis is infection of meninges that causes by bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites and other toxins. This infection can be classified to acute, subacute and chronic. The pathophysiology, treatment and clinical manifestation are different for each type of organism. Bacterial meningitis is a primary of an infection of the pia mater and arachnoid, the subarachnoid space, the ventricular system and the CFS (kathyn sue 1994). The types of bacteria that carry for acute bacterial meningitis are meningococci, streptococci, and pneumocci. Middle ear or frontal sinus is responsible that carried the bacteria to meninges. The most common meningitis in children is meningococcal, the most common meningitis in adult is pneumococcal and streptococcal meningitis is the most common in young children. CHAPTER SIX TREATMENT 6.1 Treatment The objective of treatment is to help the human body to fight the infection and relieve symptoms with give supportive care like example rest, nutrition, and fluids. Antibiotics will give to patients if the infection is caused by bacteria (certain bacteria) and antiviral medication (acyclovir and foscarnet) to treat herpes encephalitis or the severe viral infection. Anti seizure medication ( phenytoin) will be given to prevent seizures. (encephalitis 2012) Mayo 2011 states that treatment for mild cases include bed rest, drinking plenty of fluid and anti- inflammatory drugs such as acetaminophen to relieve fever and headache. For more severe cases of encephalitis can be category into three treatment which are Antiviral drugs, supportive care and follow up therapy. 6.1.1 Antiviral drugs Acylovir and Ganciclovir are antiviral drugs that common used to treat encephalitis but it is not responding for some viruses such as insect-borne viruses. This drug also can be very effective to treat herpes simplex virus. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, pain of muscle or joint and loss of appetite are the side effect for the antiviral drugs. Abnormalities in kidney or liver function are rare serious problem (Mayo 2011) 6.1.2 Supportive Care For severe encephalitis, additional supportive care also be needed in the hospital. This is including breathing assistance as monitor heart function and breathing, intravenous fluids is to ensure that appropriate levels of essential minerals and proper hydration. Anti- inflammatory also be given to help reduce pressure and swelling within the skull such as corticosteroids. Patient that have seizures or to prevent seizure, anticonvulsant medicine such as phenytoin is given (Mayo 2011). 6.1.3 Follow up therapy Follow up therapy is depending to the type or severity of complication. This therapy includes physical therapy which is to help improve flexibility, strength, motor coordination and balance. Occupational therapy is to use adaptive products that help with everyday activities and develop everyday skills. Patient that have speech problem, speech therapy can be help to relearn muscle control and coordination. Psychotherapy is learning how to be coping strategies and have new behavioural skills that can improve personality changes and mood disorder (Mayo 2011). 6.2 Diagnosis According to National Institute of Neurological disorders and stroke (2011), the doctor may diagnostic tests to confirm the presence of inflammation and infection by following a physical exam and medical history to looking activities of the past several days such as patient have bite by animal or insects or any contact with ill persons. The patients may perform a neurological examination, laboratory screening of blood, urine and body sections and analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid. A neurological examination is to assess nerve function, coordination and balance, mental status, changes in behaviour and function of motor and sensory. Usually, the doctor use small light, reflex hammer to test of strength and sensation or nervous system. Laboratory screening of blood, urine and body secretions is use to determine the presence of antibodies and foreign body that can detect and recognize brain and spinal cord inflammation and infection. Analysis of cerebrospinal fluid is the procedure that known as lumbar puncture. The procedure of lumbar puncture is special needle is inserted into the lower back and then a small of amount of cerebrospinal fluids is removed. CHAPTER SEVEN PROGNOSIS 7.1 Expectations Usually, outcome of encephalitis is depend on what infection involves, the severity of illness, how quickly time treatment is given. Patient with very mild encephalitis most of them can make a full recovery, although the process treatment may be slow. The patient can be recovering in 2-4 weeks for patient have experience only fever, body stiffness and headache. For the severe cases, the patient may be have problem with hearing, speech, blindness, behaviour changes, seizures, memory loss, muscle weakness, and cognitive disabilities. Long-term therapy, medication and supportive care may be required for these patients. (national institude of neurological disorder and stroke 2011) Goodman (2003) notes that patient who may have been ill at the onset , their rate recovery range from 10% to 50%. The patients have mumps meningoencephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis have an excellent expectation. Other encephalitis that have moderate to good rate of survival are western equine, St. Louis and California encephalitis. Herpes simplex encephalitis has a moderately good outcome, 50% of person neurologic disorder and 20% mortality. With similar infections, young children more take longer recover than adults. In infants, permanent cerebral sequelae are occurred. 7.2 Prevention Christian Nordqist (2009) found that the effectives way to reduced risk to get encephalitis by keeping up to date with vaccines. Other than that, take measures to reduce the risk being bitten in area to have mosquito that carry virus encephalitis. For example, keep house mosquito free, wearing appropriate clothing, do not go mosquito infested area, using insect repellent, avoid go outside at specific time where there a lot of mosquito, for example at night and make sure there are no stagnant water in house. Beside that, encephalitis can be prevented by avoid sharing food, glasses or other object that have be exposed from infected person. Good personal hygiene also can reduce risk to get disease from infected person. Wash hand frequently with soap and rinse under running water ( National Institude of Neurologic Disorder and Stroke 2011). CHAPTER EIGHT CONCLUSION

Analysis of My Last Duchess by Robert Browning Essay -- Last Duchess R

Analysis of My Last Duchess by Robert Browning Murder mystery intrigue. All describe Robert Browning's poem, 'My Last Duchess'. From the speaker's indirect allusions to the death of his wife the reader might easily think that the speaker committed a vengeful crime out of jealousy. His flowery speech confuses and disguises any possible motives, however, and the mystery is left unsolved. The poem is a great example of dramatic dialogue, a poetic form used to narrate and dramatize. It consists entirely of the words of a single speaker who reveals in his speech his own nature and the dramatic situation in which he finds himself. This format suits this poem particularly well because the speaker, taken to be the Duke of Ferrara, comes across as being very controlling, especially in conversation. For example, he seems jealous that he was not able to monopolize his former duchess' smile for himself. He also seems to direct the actions of the person he is addressing with comments such as "Will't please you rise?" The title of the poem evidently refers to a wall painting that Ferrarareveals to someone yet unidentified in the first fourteen words of the poem. "That's my last Duchess painted on the wall." He says. The line suggests self-satisfaction. The emphasis in the title is on last, as the ending of the poem makes clear; the Duke is now negotiating for his next Duchess. Fra Pandolf and Claus of Innsbruck are artists of Browning's own invention. Emphasizing the word Last as the ending of the poem implies; the Duke, identified as "Ferrara" in the poem's speech prefix, is negotiating for his next Duchess. Finding ourselves being given a tour of a grand home for the first time, by the owner himself, and be... ...ssiveness of the prospective son-in-law. I think that another positive aspect of the poem was the fact that Browning allows the reader to asses the Duke for themselves. I as the reader could see that such powerful Renaissance rulers were ruthless and greedy. I also saw how jealousy and possessiveness can destroy things that we love the most. I think that framing his former wife is a way for the Duke to prevent the count's daughter from misinterpreting him. His absolute rule will allow him to prescribe her behavior, but he depends on the count's representative to convey his indelicate hints about propriety better than he could verbally respond to the last duchess's miscues. I feel that in the poem there is pain, jealousy, rejection and happiness. The majority of the spectrum of emotions associated with love and marriage is contained by this piece.

Old Leisure - Literary Devices :: essays research papers

History has seen advancements in technology, philosophy, and industry, all of which radically changed the lives of those witnessing such developments. Slower, more relaxed lifestyles have given way to lifestyles of a faster paced nature. George Eliot describes her preference for the leisure of the past, conveying the message that the rushed leisure of her time is hardly leisure at all. She accomplishes this by using several stylistic devices, including personification, imagery, and diction. The most obvious stylistic device used by Eliot is that of personification. She uses this device to create two people from her thoughts on old and new leisure. The fist person is New Leisure, who we can infer to be part of the growth of industry in the 19th century. He is eager and interested in science, politics, and philosophy. He reads exciting novels and leads a hurried life, attempting to do many things at once. Such characteristics help us to create an image of New Leisure as Eliot sees him. Old Leisure is quite contrasting to New Leisure. Being a stout country squire of the 18th century, he is laid back, simple minded, well fed, and financially well off. He reads but one newspaper and favors Sunday services that "allow him to sleep." "He never went to Exeter Hall, or heard a popular preacher, or read Tracts for the Times or Sartor Resartus." He is not bothered by his "inability to know the causes of things" and sleeps "the sleep of the irresponsible." Eliot describes Old Leisure more than New Leisure because today's readers are familiar enough with living a life as hurried and fast paced as New Leisure's. Her description of Old Leisure is nostalgic of a slower paced way of life. While Eliot uses human characteristics and actions to describe Old and New Leisure, she also creates images of both personages to further depict their contrasting lifestyles. The images of Old Leisure include him "scenting the apricots when they were warmed by the morning sunshine." They also depict portraits of life in Old Leisure's era as "slow waggons," "spinning wheels," and "pedlars, who brought bargains to the door on a sunny afternoon." They also tell of how Old Leisure "fingered the guineas in his pocket" and was "fond of sauntering by the fruit-tree wall." New Leisure, on the other hand, does not live in a world where such images are present. He is ""prone to cursory peeps through microscopes" and is "prone to excursion- trains, art museums, periodical literature, and exciting novels.

Formulation & Evalution of Atenolol Hcl Microemulsion for Ocular Administration

1. INTRODUCTION Objectives of the project: (a) Develop a formulation of Atenolol HCL microemulsion for ocular application to decrease IOP in case of glaucoma. (b) Improve the quality of patient’s life suffering from glaucoma. (c) Reduce the number of dosing per day. 1. 1 Eye â€Å"If a physician performed a major operation on a seignior (a nobleman) with a bronze lancet and has saved the seignior's life, or he opened the eye socket of a seignior with a bronze lancet and has saved the seignior's eye, he shall receive ten shekels of silver.But, if the physician in so doing has caused the seignior's death or has he destroyed the seignior's eye, they shall cut off his hand† the forgoing excerpts are from 282 laws of King Hammurabi's Code. The eye is unique in its therapeutic challenges. An efficient system, that of tears and tear drainage, which quickly eliminates drug solutions which makes topical delivery to the eye somewhat different from most other areas of the body. Pr eparations for the eye comprise a variety of different types of products; they may be solutions (eye drops or eyewashes), suspensions, or ointments.Any modern text on drug product design and evaluation must place into perspective the unique nature of the ophthalmic dosage form in general more specifically. It must consider that the bodily organ which, probably better than any other, serves as a model structure for the evaluation of drug activity, the eye. In no other organ can the practitioner, without surgical or mechanical interaction, so well observe the activity of the drug being administered.Most ocular structures can be readily viewed from cornea to retina and in doing so; any signs of ocular or systemic disease can be detected long before sight-threatening or certain health threatening disease states become intractable. Behind the relative straightforward composition nature of ophthalmic solutions and ointments, however, like many physicochemical parameters which affect drug stability, safety and efficacy as they do most other products.Additionally, specialized dosage forms such as parenteral type ophthalmic solutions for intraocular, subtenons, and retrobulbar use; suspensions for insoluble substances such as hydrocortisone; and solids for reconstitution such as ecothiophate iodide and tetracycline, all present the drug product designer with composition and manufacturing procedure challenges in the development of pharmaceuticals. Opthalmic products, like most others in the medical armamentarium, are undergoing a process termed optimization.New modes of delivering a drug to the eye are being actively explored ranging from a solid hydrophobic device which is inserted into the ophthalmic cul-de-sac, to conventionally applied dosage forms which, due to their formulation characteristics markedly increase the drug residence time in the orbit of the eye, thus providing drug for absorption for prolonged period of time and reducing the frequency with which a gi ven drug product must be administered [1]. Ocular diseases are mainly treated topically by application of drug solutions administered as eye drops.These conventional dosage forms account for 90% of the available ophthalmic formulations. This can be due to the simplicity and convenience of such dosage forms [2]. It is often assumed that drugs administered topically to the eye are rapidly and totally absorbed and are available to the desirable site in the globe of the eye to exert their therapeutic effect. Indeed, this is generally not the case. When a quantity of topical ophthalmic dosage form is applied to the eye, generally to the lower cul-de-sac, several factors immediately begin to affect the availability of the drug contained in that quantity of the dosage form.Upon application of 1 to 2 drops of a sterile ophthalmic solution, there are many factors, which will participate in the removal of the applied drops from the lower cul-de-sac [5]. The first factor effecting drug availab ility is that the loss of the drug from the palpebral fissure. This takes place by spillage of the drug from the eye and its removal via nasolacrimal apparatus. The normal volume of tears in human eye is estimated to be approximately 7  µl, and if blinking does not occur the human eye can accommodate a volume of 30 III without spillage from palpebral fissure.With an estimated drop volume of  µl, 70% of the administered volume of 2 drops can be seen to expel from the eye by overflow. If blinking occurs, the residual volume of lO  µl indicates that 90% of the administer volume of two drops will be expelled. The second factor is the drainage of the administered drop via the nasolacrimal system into the gastrointestinal tract which begins immediately upon instillation. This takes place when reflex tearing causes the volume of the fluid in the palpebral fissure to exceed the normal lacrimal volume of 7 – 10  µl.Fig (l) indicates the pathways for this drainage. A third mech anism of drug loss from the lacrimal fluid is systemic absorption through the conjunctiva of the eye. The conjunctiva is a thin, vascularized membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelids and covers the anterior part of the sclera. Due to the relative leakiness of the membrane, rich blood flow and large surface area, conjunctival uptake of a topically applied drug from the tear fluids is typically an order of magnitude greater than corneal uptake [3]. Figure (1): The pathways for drainage of drug from the eye [2]In competition with the three foregoing drug removal from the palpebral fissure is the transcorneal absorption of drug, the cornea is an avascular body and, with the percorneal tear film first refracting mechanism operant in the physiological process of sight. It is composed of lipophilic epithelium, Bowman's membrane, hydrophilic stroma, Descement's membrane and lipophilic endothelium. Drugs penetrate across the corneal epithelium via the transcellular or paracellula r pathway. Lipophilic drugs prefer the transcellular route.Hydrophilic drugs penetrate primarily through the paracellular pathway which involves passive or altered diffusion through intercellular spaces, for most topically applied drugs, passive diffusion along their concentration gradient, either transcellularly or paracellularly, is the main permeation mechanism across the cornea [6]. Physicochemical drug properties, such as lipophilicity, solubility, molecular size and shape and degree of ionization affect the route and rate of permeation in cornea [3]. 1. 2 Microemulsions Oil and water are immiscible. They separate into two phases when mixed, each saturated with traces of the other component [7].An attempt to combine the two phases requires energy input to establish water-oil contacts that would replace the water-water and oil-oil contacts. The interfacial tension between bulk oil and water can be as high as 30- dynes/cm [8]. To overcome this, surfactants can be used. Surfactant s are surface-active molecules. They contain water-loving (hydrophilic) and oil-loving (lipophilic) moieties [9]. Because of this characteristic, they tend to adsorb at the water-oil interface. If enough surfactant molecules are present, they align and create an interface between the water and the oil by decreasing the interfacial tension [8].An emulsion is formed, when a small amount of an appropriate surfactant is mechanically agitated with the oil and water. This results in a two-phase dispersion where one phase exists as droplets coated by surfactant that is dispersed throughout the continuous, other phase. These emulsions are milky or turbid in appearance due to the fact that the droplet sizes range from 0. 1 to 1 micron in diameter [9]. As a general rule, the type of surfactant used in the system determines which phase is continuous. If the surfactant is hydrophilic, thenoil will be emulsified in droplets throughout a continuous water phase.The opposite is true for more lipoph ilic surfactants. Water will be emulsified in droplets that are dispersed throughout a continuous oil phase in this case [10]. Emulsions are kinetically stable, but are ultimately thermodynamically unstable. Over time, they will begin to separate back into their two phases. The droplets will merge together, and the dispersed phase will sediment (cream) [9]. At this point, they degrade back into bulk phases of pure oil and pure water with some of the surfactant dissolved in preferentially in one of the two [8]. 1. 2. Characteristics of Microemulsions If a surfactant that possesses balanced hydrophilic and lipophilic properties is used in the right concentration, a different oil and water system will be produced. The system is still an emulsion, but exhibits some characteristics that are different from the milky emulsions discussed previously. These new systems are called â€Å"microemulsions†. The interfacial tension between phases, amount of energy required for formation, dro plet sizes and visual appearance are only a few of the differences seen when comparing emulsions to microemulsions.Microemulsions are in many respects small-scale emulsions. They are fragile systems in the sense that certain surfactants in specific concentrations are needed for microemulsion formation [11]. In simplest form, they are a mixture of oil, water and a surfactant. The surfactant, in this case, generates an ultra-low free energy per unit of interfacial area between the two phases (103mN/m) which results from a precise balance between thehydrophilic and lipophilic nature of the surfactant and large oil-to-water interfacial areas.These ultra-low free energies allow thermodynamically stable equilibrium phases to exist, which require only gentle mixing to form [12]. This increased surface area would ultimately influence the transport properties of a drug [14]. The free energy of the system is minimized by the compensation of surface energy by dispersion entropy. The flexible i nterfacial film results in droplet sizes that fall in a range of 10-100 nm in diameter for microemulsion systems. Although these systems are formed spontaneously, the driving forces are small and may possibly take time to reach equilibrium [14].This is a dynamic process. There is diffusion of molecules within the microstructures and there are fluctuations in the curvature of the surfactant film. These droplets diffuse through the continuous phase while kinetics of the collision, merging and separation of droplets occur [13, 10]. With droplet sizes in the nanometer range, microemulsions are optically transparent and are considered to be solutions. They are homogeneous on a macroscopic scale, but are heterogeneous on a molecular scale [7]. Microemulsions usually exhibit low viscosities and Newtonian flow characteristics.Their flow will remain constant when subjected to a variety of shear rates. Bicontinuous formulations may show some non-Newtonian flow and plasticity [16]. Microemulsi on viscosity is close to that of water, even at high droplet concentrations. The microstructure is constantly changing, making these very dynamic systems with reversible droplet coalescence [15]. To study the different properties of microemulsions, a variety of techniques are usually employed. Light scattering, x-ray diffraction, ultracentrifugation, electrical conductivity, and viscosity measurements have been widely used [20].These are only a few of themany techniques used to characterize microemulsions. Instrumentation and their application to microemulsions will be discussed in a later chapter. 1. 2. 2 Types of Microemulsions Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable, but are only found under carefully defined conditions [3]. One way to characterize these systems is by whether the domains are in droplets or continuous [22]. Characterizing the systems in this way results in three types of microemulsions: oil-in-water (o/w), water-in-oil (w/o), and bicontinuous.Generally, one wo uld assume that whichever phase was a larger volume would be the continuous phase, but this is not always the case. Figure (2): Possible nanostructures present within microemulsions: a) o/w; b) o/w, and c) Bicontinuous [22] Oil-in-water microemulsions are droplets of oil surrounded by a surfactant (and possibly co-surfactant) film that forms the internal phase distributed in water, which is the continuous phase. This type of microemulsion generally has a larger interaction volume than the w/o microemulsions [23].The monolayer of surfactant forms the interfacial film that is oriented in a â€Å"positive† curve, where the polar head-groups face the continuous water phase and the lipophilic tails face into the oil droplets [17]. The o/w systems are interesting because they enable a hydrophobic drug to be more soluble in an aqueous based system, by solubilizing it in the internal oil droplets. Most drugs tend to favor small/medium molecular volume oils as opposed to hydrocarbon o ils due to the polarity of the poorly water-soluble drugs. An o/w drug delivery tends to be straightforward when compared to w/o microemulsions.This is the result of the droplet structure of o/w microemulsions being retained on dilution with the biological aqueous phase [23]. Water-in-oil microemulsions are made up of droplets of water surrounded by an oil continuous phase. These are generally known as â€Å"reverse-micelles†, where the polar headgroups of the surfactant are facing into the droplets of water with the fatty acid tails facing into the oil phase. This type of droplet is usually seen when the volume fraction of water is low, although the type of surfactant impacts this as well.A w/o microemulsion used orally or parenterally may be destabilized by the aqueous biological system. The biological system increases the phase volume of the internal phase, eventually leading to a â€Å"percolation phenomenon† where phase separation or phase inversion occurs [23]. O ral peptide delivery in w/o microemulsions is still used, however, The hydrophilic peptides can be easily incorporated into the water internal phase and are more protected from enzymatic proteolysis by the continuous oil phase than other oral dosage forms [17, 18].A w/o microemulsion is best employed, though, in situations where dilution by the aqueous phase is unlikely, such as intramuscular injection or transdermal delivery [17, 19]. When the amount of water and oil present are similar, a bicontinuousmicroemulsion system may result. In this case, both water and oil exist as a continuous phase. Irregular channels of oil and water are intertwined, resulting in what looks like a â€Å"sponge-phase† [ 20, 21]. Transitions from o/w to w/o microemulsions may pass through this bicontinuous state.Bicontinuousmicroemulsions, as mentioned before, may show non-Newtonian flow and plasticity. These properties make them especially useful for topical delivery of drugs or for intravenous a dministration, where upon dilution with aqueous biological fluids form an o/w microemulsion [25]. 1. 2. 3 Preparation of Microemulsion The preparation of microemulsions requires the determination of the existence range of microemulsions, which can be determined by visual observation of various mixtures of surfactant, co-surfactant, oily phase, and aqueous phase reported in a phase diagram.Two techniques are presented in the literature, each of them resulting in microemulsions: (1)†Exact† process by autoemulsification; (2) process based on supply of energy. 1. 2. 3. 1 Autoemulsification: Due to the spontaneous formation of the microemulsions, they can be prepared in one step by mixing the constituents with magnetic stirrer. The order of the addition of the constituents is not considered a critical factor for the preparation of micro emulsions, but it can influence the time required to obtain equilibrium.This time will increase if the co-surfactant is added to the organic phase, because its greater solubility in this phase will prevent the diffusion in the aqueous phase. This method is easier and much simpler then â€Å"supply of energy† method [25]. 1. 2. 3. 2 Process based on supply of energy: In this case, microemulsions are not obtained spontaneously. A decrease of the quantity of surfactants results in the use of high-pressure homogenizers in order to obtain the desired size of droplets that constitute the internal phase as opposed to the former technique [23].Benita and Levy [18] have studied the efficacy of various equipment for obtaining particles of different sizes. Two steps are required: the first step produces a coarse emulsion (0. 65 mm) by using a high-speed mixer. The second step consists of using a high pressure homogenizer. The dispersion of the oily phase in the aqueous phase is also facilitated by heating the phases before mixing them, the choice of the temperature depending on the sensitivity of the drug to heat.Cooling the preparation is required before its introduction in the high-pressure homogenizer, which can raise the temperature. A blue opalescent micro emulsion is obtained. 1. 2. 4 Review of literature: The microemulsion dosage form provided a delayed pharmacological action compared to the pharmacological action of regular eye drops. This observation led to the conclusion that the micro emulsion eye drops have a real advantage compared to regular eye drops which must be administered four times a day due to the short duration of the pharmacological action.According to Naveh et al. , it appeared that the retention of pilocarpine content in the internal oil phase, and the oil-water interface of the emulsion are sufficient to concomitantly enhance the ocular absorption of the drug through the cornea, and also increasing the corneal concentration of pilocarpine. After comparing the diffusion profiles of two microemulsions preparations and an aqueous solution of pilocarpine, Hasse and Keipert [29] s tudied their pharmacological effect in vivo by using six rabbits for each group.The obtained results were different from those observed in vitro. The two microemulsions provided a delayed release compared to the release of the drug incorporated in the aqueous solution. No experimental study has been conducted with microemulsions prepared by autoemulsification. However, several trials were conducted with microemulsions prepared by supply of energy. Melamed et al. [27] prepared micro emulsions containing adaprolol maleate. According to these authors, no ocular irritation was noticed in the group of forty healthy volunteers as opposed to regular eye droplets.The depressor effect was delayed; the intra-ocular pressure was still high 6 and 12 h after the instillation of the micro emulsion. A single instillation of microemulsion or corresponding placebo, namely microemulsion without any drug, was administered to twenty healthy volunteers. The determined parameters were the pupillary diame ter and variation of intra-ocular pressure. The effect of the micro emulsion which contains pilocarpine is obvious as compared to the placebo and was noticed within 1 h from instillation. The return to the initial values was noticed within 12 h [28,29]. Lv et al. 32] investigated micro emulsion systems composed of Span20/80, Tween20/80, n-butanol, H20, isopropyl palmitate (IPP)/isopropy lmyristate (IPM) as model systems of drug carriers for eye drops. The results showed that the stability of the chloramphenicol in the micro emulsion formulations was increased remarkably. Study of the effect of a single dose of atenolol 4% eye drops on 21 patients with primary open-angle glaucoma during a double-blind clinical trial. Monitoring of intraocular pressure (IOP), blood pressure, and pulse rate. At three and six h after medication, the average reduction of IOP was 7. and 4. 1 mm Hg respectively compared to the baseline readings without medication. The reduction of IOP at four h after medic ation was 6. 3 mm Hg compared to the pretreatment value. This corresponds to an average change from the pretreatment value of 22 percent. Blood pressure and pulse rate did not change significantly. We observed no subjective or objective ocular side effects. The duration of the effect of a single dose of Atenolol 4% eye drops is approximately six h. Atenolol 4% eye drops may become a useful agent in the medical treatment of glaucoma if a long-term effect and no ocular side effects [30]. . 3 Atenolol Atenolol is a selective ? 1 receptorantagonist, a drug belonging to the group of beta blockers (sometimes written ? -blockers), a class of drugs used primarily in cardiovascular diseases. Introduced in 1976, atenolol was developed as a replacement for propranolol in the treatment of hypertension. The chemical works by slowing down the heart and reducing its workload. Unlike propranolol, atenolol does not pass through the blood-brain barrier thus avoiding various central nervous system sid e effects. 25] Atenolol is one of the most widely used ? -blockers in the United Kingdom and was once the first-line treatment for hypertension. The role for ? -blockers in hypertension was downgraded in June 2006 in the United Kingdom to fourth-line, as they perform less appropriately or effectively than newer drugs, particularly in the elderly. Some evidence suggests that even in normal doses the most frequently used ? -blockers carry an unacceptable risk of provoking type 2 diabetes. Figure (3): Chemical structure of Atenolol [26]